INTRODUCTION:

In India our culture and our lives has been associated with native flora and fauna. Both used as food as well as medicine. Mostly plants used as major drug source in modern as well as traditional medicine throughout the world. Plants belonging to zingiberaceae ginger family are known for various medicinal properties¹. Ginger is an herb indigenous to south eastern Asia. It is cultivated in the U.S., India, China, West Indies and tropical regions. Ginger is a creeping perennial on a thick tuberous rhizome. In the first year, a green, erect, reed-like stem about 60 cm high grows from this rhizome.

The plant has narrow, lanceolate to linear-lanceolate leaves 15 to 30cm long², which die off each year. Most of the Alpinia species have been reported to exhibit fungicidal, antioxidant and bactericidal properties^3-5. It also inhibits the growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis^6-7. Phytochemical studies showed that Alpinia. purpurata possess flavonoids, rutin, kaempferol-3-rutinoside and kaempferol-3-oliucronid⁸. Alpinia purpurata (Vieill.) K. Schum (red ginger) is a herbaceous perennial plant, internationally known in the ornamental plant market as potted plant, landscape accent and cut flower⁹. The rhizome has sharp odour, which could improve appetite, taste and voice. It is also used for headache, rheumatism, sore throat and renal disease¹⁰. The plant possesses moderate antibacterial and anticancer activities, which may be due to the presence of secondary metabolites in the leaves of Alpinia purpurata¹¹. In addition to the proposed anti-inflammatory activity, its phytomedicinal potential to treat tuberculosis is also described¹².

Erythrina variegata L. (Family-fabaceae) is a medium sized quick growing tree seen in deciduous forests throughout India¹³. Various parts of this plant are used in traditional folk medicine across Asia, for treating ailments from liver trouble to leprosy. Its extracts exhibit sedative, antidiuretic, antihyperlipidemic and antiulcer activities¹⁴. Erythrina variegata L. flowers demonstrated with the more powerful and promising antioxidant activity compared to the leaves and it also can be used as an effective protecting mediator against the oxidative stress and it helps to combat the diseases like cancer, diabetic mellitus and other diseases¹⁵. The studies on phytochemicals of Erythrina variegata have demonstrated alkaloids and flavonoids as major constituents¹⁶. E. variegata L. parts (leaves, flowers, barks and roots) have been used in the natural medicines as nervine sedative, febrifuge, anti-asthmatic and antiepileptic. Traditionally, it has potential effects to heal some of the diseases like convulsion, fever, alzheimer, inflammation, bacterial infection, cough, ulcer, cuts and wounds¹⁷. The Juice of the leaves is mixed with honey and ingested to kill tapeworm, roundworm and threadworm. It is also used to give relief from earache and toothache¹⁸.

Figure 1. Alpinia purpurata

Figure 2: Erythrina variegata

Characteristics of Alpinia purpurata and Erythrina variegata:

Alpinia purpurata:

Alpinia purpurata of the sub-family Alpinieae is a medium-sized plant up to 2m in height¹⁹. Leaves are deep green, alternate, sessile and oblong with a pointed apex. Leafy shoots terminate in attractive inflorescences, which are erect spikes with showy red or pink bracts. Rhizomes and leaf stalks are aromatic. Some individuals in the species have the ability to produce plantlets from the inflorescences²⁰.

Taxonomical Classification:

Kingdom - Plantae

Phylum - Tracheophyta

Class - Liliopsida

Order - Zingiberales

Family - Zingiberaceae

Genus - Alpinia

Species - Alpinia purpurata (Vieill) K. Schum

Erythrina variegate:

About 110 species of trees and shrubs in Erythrina genus. It is typically found on sandy soil in littoral forest, and sometimes in coastal forest up to 250m (800ft) in elevation. The most attractive type, var. variegata, is grown for its variegated leaves, as well as its seasonal showy red flowers²¹. Erythrina variegata is belongs to the family Fabaceae or Indian coral tree, is in an average size and grows rapidly in the deciduous forests all over India.

Taxonomical Classification:

Kingdom - Plantae

Phylum - Magnoliophyta

Class - Magnoliopsida

Family - Fabaceae

Genus - Erythrina L.- Coral Tree

Species - E. variegate L.

Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Alpenia purpurata:

The scientific pharmacognostic study of a medicinal plant begins with the proper identification of the genus and species of the selected plant by comparison with the available literature and references by an expert botanist and taxonomist²². The phytochemical study of Alpinia purpurata leaves revealed that it possess flavonoids, rutin, kaempferol-3-rutinoside and kaempferol-3-oliucronide²³. Alpinia purpurata also have antimicrobial activity against microorganisms²⁴ and also have anti-inflammatory activity and potential to treat tuberculosis²⁵. It is also a major natural antioxidant. Its Rhizome contained labda-8(17), 12- diene-15,16-dial and piperine²⁶. In the Alpinia species Piperine was the first alkaloid reported. Phytochemical screening of the ethanol extract of rhizome reported the presence of flavonoids, saponins, carbohydrates, proteins, glycosides, terpenoids, resins and tannins²⁷.

Alpinia purpurata, better known for its ornamental use, has been assessed for medicinal potential, and various parts of the plant have bioactive compounds with therapeutic efficacy and most of the bioactive compounds can act as antioxidants, anticancer agents, anti-inflammatory agents, and neuroprotective agents²⁸

Antimicrobial Activity:

One of the major biological properties of flavonoids is their antimicrobial activity and their main role in plants is to act as protective compounds against disease caused by microorganism such as fungi bacteria and viruses²⁹. The order of antimicrobial activity according to the extraction solvent was ethanol ˃ Petroleum ether ˃ chloroform. Kochuthressia et al. (2010) demonstrated the antimicrobial activity of different extracts from the leaves, rhizomes, and roots of the red gingers Alpinia purpurata against six different bacterial species by disk diffusion assay. The ethanolic extract from the rhizome was the most efficient in the inhibition of bacterial growth, and the ethanolic extract of the leaves was considered moderately effective³⁰.

Venkatesh et al. (2014), assessed the biological synthesis of silver nanoparticles using aqueous extract of the whole Alpinia purpurata plant in the detection of the antimicrobial activity. The application of silver nanoparticles in the medical industry prevents wound infection with topical ointments. The results showed that the silver nanoparticles obtained from an aqueous extract of the Alpinia purpurata plant were efficient in inhibiting the pathogenic bacteria Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, E. coli, and Klebsiella pneumonia³¹

Antioxidant Activity:

The antioxidant activity of Alpinia purpurata shows the high antioxidant power in the SOD, DPPH, and also Ferric reducing power (FRAP assay) assay. because of the presence of high amount of flavonoid phytochemical³². The previous study suggested that the presence of alkaloids, tannins, steroids, flavonoids, saponins, phlobatannins and phenolics³³, steroids, sugars and alkaloids, in the ethanolic extract of whole plant of Alpinia purpurata. Alpinia species are well known medicinal herbs that have been proven by previous researches to have several effects, namely anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antidermatophytic, antinociceptive, hepatoprotective, immunostimulatory, and anticancer activities³⁴.

Juna Beegum and her co-workers investigated that phlobatannins were found only in methanolic extract. They observed all the phytochemical compounds in methanolic extract and flavonoids having antioxidant properties and it protects tissue against oxygen free radicals. The major role of flavonoids is to prevent the atherosclerosis, cancer, chronic inflammation³⁵.

Anticancer Activity:

This study clearly demonstrated that an hexane-leaf extract of Alpinia purpurata is a good antioxidant and induces apoptosis in HeLa cells. These results suggest that Alpinia purpurata that acts as an apoptotic inducer could become a potential anticancer agent in development of the drug³⁶. Flavonoids are potent water-soluble antioxidants and free radical scavengers which prevent oxidative cell damage and have strong anticancer activity³⁷. Alpinia purpurata may serve as potential antioxidant and anticancer agents against ovarian cancer cell lines³⁸. The isolated compound Pentatriacontanoic acid from Ethyl acetate leaf extract of Alpinia purpurata has a good cytotoxic effect on PC-3 Prostate cancer cell line³⁹. According to Al-Enazi (2018), the members of the Zingiberaceae family are widely used as spices in cooking, and some are used medicinally⁴⁰.

Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Erythrina variegate:

Erythrina variegate:

This review gives an information about the current phytochemical and pharmacological aspects of Erythrina variegata. Erythrina variegata also known as Erythrina indica and it is a thorny deciduous tree growing to 60 feet tall. A huge range of chemical compounds have been detected, mainly alkaloids, flavonoids, triterpenoids, and lectin. Most parts of the plant have been used in traditional medicine as nervine sedative, collyrium in ophthalmia, anti asthmatic, antiepileptic, antiseptic, and as an astringent. The leaves extracted from Erythrina variegata are reported to have anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity due to the alkaloids present in it. Isoflavonoids isolated from Erythrina variegata having antibacterial and anthelmintic activity. The other major characteristic pharmacological effects like neuromuscular blocking, smooth muscle relaxant, CNS depressant, and hydrocholeretic, which are also reported. Hence this article includes the detailed exploration of morphology, phytochemistry, and pharmacological aspects of Erythrina variegata in an attempt to provide a direction for further research⁴¹.

Common names:

Coral tree, Indian coral tree, tiger’s-claw (English) Gatae (Samoa, Horne Islands, ‘Uvea, Cook Islands) Dadap aykam (Java, Indonesia).

Phytochemistry:

Alkaloids, flavonoids, pterocarpans, triterpenes, steroids, alkyl trans-ferulates, proteins, and lecithin are found in the genus. Literature survey has revealed that a number of reports are available on Erythrina variegate.

Alkaloids:

Erythrina variegata having rich source of alkaloids. (+)-3-Demethoxyer ythratidinone, (+)-er ythraline, (+)-erythramine, (+)-erythrinine, (+)-erythratidinone, (+)-erysonine, (+)-erysotine, (+)-erysodine, (+)-erysovine, (+)-11-hydroxy- epi- erythratidine, (+)-erythratidine, (+)-epierythratidine, (+)-erysodienone, (+)-erysotrine, (+)-erysopitine, (+)-11-β-hydroxyerysotrine[(+)-erythrartine] are the tetracyclic alkaloids isolated from the various parts of plants⁷ and scoulerine, (+) coreximine, l-reticuline, and erybidine isolated from the leaves of erythrina variegata⁴². Previous studies also reported the presence of Presences oisoquinoline (erythritol) and isococcolinine alkaloids⁴³.

Flavonoids:

Most of the authors reported that the flavonoids group exhibit a huge range of biological activities such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti inflammatory, anticancer, and antiallergic⁴⁴. Flavonoids are present in all vascular plants having chemical phenyl benzopyrones which are usually conjugated with sugars⁴⁵. Erythrina variegata. mostly having erythrinus A, B, and C, osajin and alpinum isoflavone, styrene oxy resveratrol and dihydroxy stilbene dihydroxy resveratrol. The plant also has Linear pyrano isoflavones, robustone and 4-O-methyl alpinum isoflavone⁴⁶. In other studies Presence of flavonoid abyssinian V, erycricstagallin and 4-hydroxy-6, 3, 5-triphenyl isoflavone was confirmed⁴⁷. It also reported that two new diphenylpropan-1,2-diols, eryvarinols A and B, three new isoflavonoids, eryvarins M-O, two new 2-aryl benzofuran, eryvarins P and Q and a 3-aryl 2,3-dihydrobenzofuran, eryvarin R were isolated from the roots of Erythrina variegata and also their structures were detected on the basis of spectroscopic and chemical evidence⁴⁸. Epilupeol, 6-hydroxygenistein, and 3β, 28-dihydroxyolean-12-ene are the other newly detected iso flavonoids in the previous studies⁴⁹.

Pharmacological Aspects:

Indian coral tree in the South Pacific, in Pohnpei the leaves are reportedly used to make a drink to cure curses, and the smoke from smoldering leaves, bark, or roots is inhaled for the same purpose. In Yap, the leaves and bark are reportedly used as a potion to treat stomach ache. In Tonga the bark is mixed with others and used to treat stomach ache. In Samoa, the leaves are occasionally used to treat eye ailments, and the bark is applied to swellings. In India, China, and Southeast Asia, the bark and leaves are used in many traditional medicines, including one said to destroy pathogenic parasites and relieve joint pain; the juice from the leaves is mixed with honey and ingested to treat tapeworm, roundworm, and threadworm in India; women take this juice to stimulate lactation and menstruation; it is commonly mixed with castor oil to treat dysentery; a warm poultice of the leaves is applied externally to relieve rheumatic joints; and the bark is used as a laxative, diuretic, and expectorant⁵⁰.

Antibacterial/dental caries prevention:

Erythrina variegata has been screened for antibacterial activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and various other strains in the iso flavonoids isolated from them. From these compounds erycristagallin and orientanol B showed the highest antibacterial activity. The antibacterial activity of erycristagallin to mutans streptococci was based on a bactericidal action. Erycristagallin (6.25µg/ml: MIC) completely inhibited incorporation of radiolabelled thymidine into Streptococcus mutans cells. Incorporation of radio-labelled glucose into bacterial cells was also strongly inhibited at MIC, and 1/2 MIC of the compound reduced the incorporation approximately by half. The findings reported that erycristagallin has a potential as potent phytochemical agent for the prevention of dental caries by inhibiting the growth of cariogenic bacteria and by interfering with incorporation of glucose responsible for production of organic acids⁵¹.

Antioxidant:

The occurance of free radicals and other reactive oxygen species in the body is compensated by an elaborate endogenous antioxidant system. However, due to many environmental, lifestyle, and pathological situations, excess radicals can accumulate, resulting in oxidative stress. The potential value of antioxidants in eradicating oxidative stress has provoked researchers to investigate natural compounds with potent antioxidative activity but low cytotoxicity. Crude extract obtained from the Erythrina variegata evaluated for their radical scavenging properties and assessed that it could be a rich source of natural oxidants for applications⁵².

Analgesic and anti-inflammatory:

The alkaloids extracted from the leaves of Erythrina variegata are reported to have anti-inflammatory activity. The leaves and barks are also used in fever and rheumatism⁵³. It has been reported that in acetic acid induced writhing models the methanolic extract of the leaf of Erythrina variegata at a dose of 500mg/kg showed significant antinociceptive activity with 49.03% inhibition of writhing response. The results were statistically significant (P<0.01) in comparison to the control. In radiant heat tail-flick model, the extract also showed significant increase in the tail flick latency at a dose of 500mg/kg body weight with 36.02% elongation of tail flick time⁵⁴.

Cardiovascular effects:

Despite improved pharmacotherapies and mechanical treatments, cardiovascular disease remains a principal cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, with every chance that this burden will increase⁵⁵. The intravenous administration of the Erythrina variegata seed extract at a dose, varying from 0.1 to 0.4mg/kg produced a sharp and short-lived fall in BP, both in cats and rats in acute experiments. On the isolated frog hearts, the extract has no action in smaller doses but at a dose of 5mg resulted in a complete but reversible block of the heart⁵⁶.

CNS effects:

In the study total alkaloid fraction from the bark showed several characteristic pharmacological effects: neuromuscular blocking, CNS depressant, and anticonvulsant effects which are consistent with the reported uses of the plant extracts in the indigenous system of medicine⁵⁷. Erythrina variegata also causes passivity and decreases spontaneous activity with positive grip strength. This indicates CNS relaxant activity (anxiolytic) of this plant⁵⁸. The current therapeutic treatment of epilepsy with modern antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) is associated with side-effects, dose related teratogenic effects, and approximately 30% of the patients continue to have seizures with current AEDs therapy. Natural products from folk remedies have contributed significantly in the discovery of modern drugs and can be an alternative source for the discovery of AEDs with novel structures and better safety and efficacy profiles. Evidence for anticonvulsant activity of Erythrina variegata in the clonic seizure of pentylenetetrazole model has been tested in mice. As for the protective effects of Erythrina variegata in clonic seizure, it suggests that it could be useful for treatment of absence seizure⁵⁹.

Smooth muscle relaxant:

Total alkaloidal fraction from bark caused smooth muscle relaxation of isolated rabbit ileum and inhibited spontaneous rhythmic contraction of isolated rat uterus in concentration of 0.5–2.0mg/ml. Erythrina variegata acts like a spasmolytic agent due to its relaxing activity; therefore, it can show an important role in conditions like diarrhoea or spasm or colic pain⁶⁰.

Calcium homeostasis:

Erythrina variegata extracts were evaluated on calcium homeostasis in ovariectomized rats and the regulation on gene expression in duodenum and kidney. It improve the serum Ca level and inhibit the urinary Ca excretion in OVX rats, and this might be due to the upregulation of Erythrina variegata on VDR mRNA expression in duodenum and CaBP-9k mRNA expression in kidney⁶¹.

Anti osteoporotic effect:

Study showed that Erythrina variegata could suppress the high rate of bone turnover induced by estrogen deficiency, which inhibit bone loss and improve the biomechanical properties of bone in the lab rats⁶².

Trypsin/proteinase inhibitors:

Study indicates that erythrina kunitz proteinase inhibitors possess different potency toward serine proteinases in the blood coagulation and fibrinolytic systems, in spite of their high similarity in amino acid sequence⁶³.

Cytotoxicity:

The lethality of the n-hexane, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, and aqueous soluble fractions of the methanolic extract to brine shrimp was evaluated on Artemia salina. The LC50 were found to be 36.68, 4.67, 7.733, and 14.289μg/mL for n-hexane, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, and aqueous fractions, respectively. In comparison with the positive control (vincristine sulphate), the cytotoxicity exhibited by the carbon tetrachloride and chloroform soluble fractions of the methanolic extract was significant. This clearly indicated the presence of potent bioactive principles in these extractives, which might be very useful as antiproliferative, antitumor, pesticidal, and other bioactive agents⁶⁴.

CONCLUSION:

Alpinia purpurata and Erythrina variegata has been ethnomedicinal used as a therapeutic agent for a variety of diseases, as we have illustrated in this article. Moreover, numerous research works have proven its uses beyond the ethnomedicinal ones in experimental animals. Alkaloids and flavonoids which were isolated from the plants may be responsible for its pharmacological activities. Therefore the cultivation, collection, and further pharmacological exploration of Alpinia purpurata and Erythrina variegata are essential. This review will act as an introducer to the ethnobotanical and phytopharmacological properties of Alpinia purpurata and Erythrina variegata and helps to encourage further research on the phytoconstituents and other unexplored medicinal values.

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Received on 04.06.2023 Modified on 31.07.2023

Res. J. Pharmacognosy and Phytochem. 2023; 15(4):298-304.

DOI: 10.52711/0975-4385.2023.00047