INTRODUCTION:

Nowadays, in India, medicinal plants have been used under a medical system Ayurveda since 5000 years. This system includes diet and herbal remedies specifically to the body, mind, and spirit for disease prevention and treatment¹.

In both developed and developing nations, herbal medicines are frequently used for medical purposes. Herbal medications are known as mixes of chemical substances produced by plants, and their usefulness is constrained due to low oral absorption².

Plants with medicinal potential are widely used throughout India by all socioeconomic groups as both traditional medicines in various indigenous medical systems like Siddha, Ayurveda, and Unani. India has about 4.5 million plant species have been investigated phytochemically for biological or pharmacological activity. Bioactive constituents or plant extracts may be used to treat a variety of diseases, and these would be used as a new formulation for the discovery of novel drugs in pharmaceutical industries³.

TARAXACUM OFFICINALE:

Taraxacum officinale, commonly called dandelion, is a perennial plant belonging to the family Asteraceae. This plant is a common weed that can be found in gardens, agricultural crops, pastures, and wastelands. The plant stands about 40 cm tall and has yellow to orange flowers with jagged leaves. Research studies show that the Taraxacum officinale leaves contain high concentrations of fiber, minerals, vitamins and essential fatty acids ⁴.

Taraxacum officinale is originally from Western Europe and northern Asia. It is widely available in America, Asia, and Europe⁵.

It is also known as wet-a-bed (after its diuretic action), lion’s tooth, fairy clock, priest’s crown, swine’s snout, blowball, milk gowan, wild endive, white endive, cankerwort, puffball, and Irish daisy⁶.

COMMON NAMES:

English: dandelion, wet-a-bed, lion’s tooth

French: dent-de-lion, pissenlit

German: Lowenzahn, Pfaffenrohrlein

Spanish: diente de leon

Italian: tarassaco ⁷

MACROSCOPIC CHARACTERISTICS:

The herbaceous plant T. officinale has large, deeply serrated leaves that are either light or dark green and arranged in a rosette at the plant's base. Long and upright flowering stalks with a single terminal inflorescence are present (Fig. 1 a-b)⁸. The fruits are 45 cm tall flower stalks with conical brown achenes as their fruits, which are crowned by a white, hairy pappus that allows the seeds to be dispersed by wind (Fig. 1 c-d)⁹.

Fig. 1: Taraxacum officinale: open flower and a rosette with terminal inflorescence (a b). Hypochaeris

radicata: open flower and the long, branched inflorescences (c-d)⁹.

MICROSCOPIC CHARACTERISTICS:

By using optical microscopy to examine the raw plant material, it was discovered that both the morphology of the stomata and the epidermal tissue in the leaves of the two species are very similar. These resemblances can be seen in. Two guard cells that surround a lenticular pore, whose orientation is largely parallel to the guard cells, make up the stomatal apparatus ¹⁰.

Fig. 2: Microphotographs showing the anatomical elements of T. officinale and H. radicata. Light micrographs of T. officinale (a) and H. radicata (b) with stomata (A) in D4 and D2 leaves samples, respectively (10× magniﬁcation). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) micrographs showing A on D4 (c) and D2 (b) leaves. (—) Scale bar in (b) 50 μm ^{9, 10}.

TYPES OF DANDELION:

More than 250 species of dandelions have been identified, and unless you're a botanist, you might struggle to tell the difference between them.

· Common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale)

· Red-seeded dandelion (Taraxacum erythrospermum)

· Russian dandelion (Taraxacum kok-saghyz)

· Japanese white dandelion (Taraxacum albidum)

· California dandelion (Taraxacum californicum)

· Pink dandelion (Taraxacum pseudoroseum) ¹¹

PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING:

Chemical components analysis (qualitative methods) for watery and alcoholic extracts of Taraxacum officinale leaves ¹².

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS:

Numerous studies have been conducted on the chemical makeup of common dandelion leaves, flowers, and roots. Sesquiterpene lactones like taraxinic acid b-D-glucopyranosyl ester, triterpenes and their acetate derivatives like a- and b-amyrin, several phenolic acids like chicoric acid and flavonoids, as well as the recently identified 4-hydroxyphenylacetate inositol esters, are some of the prominent constituents in roots ¹³.

Taraxacum officinale has numerous medicinal properties due to phytochemicals found in the plant's flower, leaf, stem, and roots. The main phytochemicals are: carotenoids; flavonoids (e.g., quercetin, chrysoeriol, luteolin-7-glucoside); phenolic acids (e.g., caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, chicoric acid); polysaccharides (e.g., inulin); sesquiterpene lactones (e.g., taraxinic acid, taraxacoside, 11β, 13-dihydrolactucin, ixerin D, taraxacolide-O-β-glucopyranoside); sterols (e.g., taraxasterol, β-sitosterol, stigmasterol); triterpenes (e.g., α-amyrin) ¹⁴. Below picture (figure 3) depicts a picture of a dandelion plant with all of its potential formulation-useful parts ¹⁵.

Dandelion Root:

Sesquiterpenes found in dandelion root extracts include the guaianolides 11b, 13- dihydrolactucin and ixerin D, 20 three germacranolide esters, taraxinic acid b-glucopyranoside, and the eudesmanolides tetrahydroridentin B and taraxacolide- O-b-glucopyranoside¹⁶.

Numerous triterpenes and phytosterols, such as taraxasterol and y-taraxasterol, their acetates and 16-hydroxy derivatives arnidol and faradiol, a- and b-amyrin, b-sitosterol, and stigmasterol are also components of dandelion root.

The root also includes a number of phenolic substances. Chicoric acid, one of the thirteen benzenoids discovered, is the most prevalent one. Other benzenoids include hydroxycinnamic acid, dicaffeoyltartaric acid, and their derivatives, particularly caffeic acid esters and a number of caffeoylquinic acid isomers ¹⁷.

Dandelion leaves and flower:

The two sesquiterpenes taraxinic acid b-Dglucopyranoside and 11, 13-dihydrotaraxinic acid b-Dglucopyranoside, as well as p-hydroxyphenylacetic acid and b-sitosterol, have been implicated in the bitter flavour of dandelion leaves. The aerial parts of the plant (flowers and leaves) have a higher concentration of polyphenols^17,18.

Hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives, particularly caffeic acid esters like chlorogenic acid, dicaffeoyltartaric (chicoric) acid, and monocaffeoyltartaric acid, are the most prevalent phenolic compounds in dandelion flowers and leaves¹⁹.

An extract of combined dandelion leaves and flowers has been found to contain a number of flavonoid glycosides, including luteolin-7-O-glucoside, luteolin-7-O-rutinoside, isorhamnetin-3-O-glucoside, quercetin-7-O-glucoside, and apigenin-7-O-glucoside ²⁰.

TRADITIONAL USES:

Teas, sandwiches, and salads can all benefit from the flavouring of dandelion leaves. The flowers are used to make wines, and the roots are used in some coffee substitutes²¹.

Dandelion roots and leaves have historically been used to treat liver issues. Additionally, Native Americans used dandelion to treat heartburn, swelling, skin issues, kidney disease, and upset stomach by boiling it in water and consuming it ²².Dandelion has been used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) to treat appendicitis, appendiceal inflammation, and breast issues like insufficient milk flow or inflammation. Dandelion was employed in European medicine to treat fever, boils, eye issues, diabetes, and diarrhoea²³.

1) Extremely nourishing

2) Has strong antioxidants

3) Managing blood sugar may be aided.

4) Lowering blood pressure

5) Lowering cholesterol and triglyceride levels

6) Promoting liver health

7) May help with weight loss

8) May improve immune function ²⁴.

MEDICINAL AND PHARMACOLOGICAL USES:

Research has been conducted to back up the descriptions of taraxacum that have been made so far. Special attention has been paid to the effects that are diuretic, choleretic, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, anti-carcinogenic, analgesic, anti-hyperglycemic, anti-coagulatory, and prebiotic ²⁵.

1. Gastrointestinal Activity:

Digestive enzymes play a key role in the breakdown of food's proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, which makes them crucial for maintaining GI health. Among the digestive enzymes that dandelion can inhibit are pancreatic lipase, -glucosidase, angiotensin converting enzyme, and xanthine oxidase ²⁶. Additionally, inflammation and oxidative stress play crucial roles in the pathogenesis of GI disorders and diseases ²⁷.

2. Antidepressive Effects:

In a mouse model of depression, the hydromethanolic extract of T. officinale has antidepressant effects primarily because it inhibits corticosterone production, activates DOP, ADA, and NAD production, and modifies Bdnf and Mapk1 expression. As a result, T. officinale may be useful in the treatment of depression ²⁸.

3. Diuretic activity and treatment of urological diseases:

Taraxasterol, a pentacyclic-triterpene compound isolated from T. officinale, is thought to have anti-urolithiatic properties ²⁹. This study compared the in vitro anti-crystallization abilities of taraxasterol, an aqueous extract of T. officinale aerial parts, with potassium citrate because the latter is known to prevent kidney stone formation ³⁰.

4. Hepatoprotective Activity:

Dandelion leaf extract's hepatoprotective properties were demonstrated against sodium dichromate-induced liver damage in rats. The total cholesterol, triglycerides, AST, ALT, lactate dehydrogenase, MDA, and chromium concentration in rat blood and liver were all reduced after oral administration of dandelion leaf hot water extract (500 mg/kg) daily for 30 days ³¹.

The other study investigated how the dandelion, Taraxacum officinale, protects mice's livers from liver damage brought on by permethrin. Permethrin treatment resulted in histological changes in the liver, but co-treatment with dandelion reduced liver damage. Our results demonstrated that treatment with dandelion roots extract permitted reversal and restoration of biochemical parameters and the histological profile of the liver in mice exposed to permethrin ³².

5. Antiviral effects:

Dandelion extracts are frequently used in traditional Chinese medicine as antiviral treatments (TCM). Both the HIV-1 and the influenza virus are inhibited by its constituents. The study's goal was to investigate any potential underlying mechanisms as well as the inhibition effects of dandelion extracts and taraxasterol on HBV ³³.

6. Antibacterial activity:

Another study found that while the extract of Taraxacum officinale leaves is only moderately effective against Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Proteus mirabilis, it is highly effective against Staphylococcus aureus ^{34, 35}.

7. Antidiabetic effects:

T. officinale leaf extracts in ethanol and water both had a hypoglycemic effect on diabetic rats, according to a study. Additionally, T. officinale's stems, leaves, and flowers all demonstrated stronger inhibitory activity against the alpha-amylase and alpha-glucosidase enzymes compared to methanol extracts ³⁶. According to the results, Taraxacum officinale L. roots contain 436.29 mg/g of inulin ³⁷.

A different investigation found that the methanol and water extracts of Taraxacum officinale have significant -amylase and -glucosidase inhibitory activities ³⁸.

8. Antiobesity activity:

In this study, it was discovered that taraxacum officinale significantly reduced body weight, lipid parameters, organ weights, and fat pad weights. When compared to the low dose, T. officinale's high dose was the most productive ³⁹.

According to a different study, Taraxacum officinale is a potent source of functional bioactive ingredients that can expand our understanding of naturopathic approaches to treating obesity⁴⁰.

9. Antioxidant activity:

Despite being a weed in many crops around the world, Taraxacum officinale is regarded as a completely nontoxic and entirely edible plant. Due to the biological effects of plants, the chemical makeup of their flowers, leaves, roots, and latex has received extensive research ⁴¹. The biologically active substances extracted from Taraxacum officinale leaves more effectively bind the ABTS radical than the reference compounds Trolox and Rutin. In the ABTS free radical capture assay, Taraxacum officinale bioactive molecules exhibited the highest antioxidant activity ^{41, 42}.

PRECAUTIONS/CONTRAINDICATIONS:

Allergies:

· Dandelion allergies most frequently manifest as dermatitis after direct skin contact ⁴³, which include skin conditions such as rashes, itching, red, swollen, or eczematous areas ⁴⁴.

· Dogs are also known to experience skin reactions. Sesquiterpene lactones may be the primary dandelion chemicals causing allergic reactions. To test for dandelion allergies, there are now patch tests available ⁴⁵.

· After using products like birdfeed containing dandelion and other herbs, rhinoconjunctivitis and asthma have been reported, with positive skin tests for dandelion hypersensitivity ⁴⁶.

TOXICITY:

· In male WISTAR, the acute toxicity of dandelion root extract was evaluated. With an LD50 ranging from 500 to 5000 mg/kg, the acute toxicity study showed that dendelion roots extract has low intraperitoneal toxicity ⁴⁷.

· Up to doses of 10 g/kg (per oral) and 4 g/kg (intraperitoneal) of dried drug -per kilogramme body weight- in rats and mice, ethanolic extracts demonstrated very low toxicity ⁴⁸.

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Received on 19.01.2023 Modified on 03.02.2023

Res. J. Pharmacognosy and Phytochem. 2023; 15(2):139-144.

DOI: 10.52711/0975-4385.2023.00021

Components	Reagents	Note	Result Watery extract	Result Alcoholic extract
Glycosides	Iodine test Molish test Benedict test	Brown ppt. Violet ring Orange ppt.	+Ve +Ve +Ve	-Ve +Ve +Ve
Alkaloids	Mayer's reagent Wagner reagent Picric acid	No white ppt. Brown ppt. Yellow ppt.	-Ve -Ve -Ve	-Ve -Ve -Ve
Saponins	Fast stirring Mercuric Chloride	No dense foam for long time No White ppt	Ve - Ve -	-Ve -Ve
Phenolic compounds	Aqueous 1 % Ferric chloride	Green ppt.	+Ve	+Ve
Tannins	Aqueous 1 % Ferric chloride Lead acetate1%	Green ppt. Preface yellow ppt.	+Ve +Ve	+Ve +Ve
Resins	Ethanol + Boiling + Distilled Water	No turbidity	-Ve	-Ve
Flavonoids	Aqueous 1 % Ferric chloride Ethanol hydroxide alcohol	Green ppt. Yellow ppt.	+Ve +Ve	+Ve +Ve
Proteins	Folin-Ciocalteau reagent	Blue color	+Ve	+Ve