INTRODUCTION:

Various plants have been used since ages as medicine. Pterocarpus marsupium is one such plant which has proved itself as versatile plant with a broad spectrum of pharmacological actions. It has been mentioned in various traditional systems of medicine like Ayurvedic, Unani and Homeopathic systems of medicine⁽¹⁾ Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb.-Fabaceae (PM) known as Indian Kino Tree or Malabar Tree in English; Vijayasar or Bija in Hindi and Asana in Sanskrit is indigenous to India, Nepal and Sri Lanka⁽²⁾ It is found specifically in the areas of the Western Ghats, in the Karnataka-Kerala region, in the states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa⁽¹⁾ Pterocarpus marsupium fined its place in the Rasayans group of Ayurveda Due to the exploitation of the tree for its timber and medicinal bark, its population is decreasing in the wild and thus, it has been mentioned in the red data book^.(2) As the modern way advances in technology, we should not forget the value of our plant world. P. marsupium is well known in India and its neighboring countries for more than 2000 years as one of the most versatile medicinal plants having a wide spectrum of biological activity. Every part of the tree has been used as traditional medicine for household remedy against various human ailments, from antiquity. P. marsupium has been extensively used in ayurveda, unani and homoeopathic medicine and has become a cynosure of modern medicine.⁵ Pterocarpus marsupium plant belonging to family Fabaceae has been used in India and its adjacent countries due to its various biological activities from ancient times. All parts of P. marsupium is used as a primitive medicine for domestic remedy against several human diseases. It has been broadly used in Homoeopathic, Ayurvedic and Unani systems of medicine^.(3)

Habitat:

PM has been traditionally used for its medicinal value The plant species is native to India, Sri Lanka and Nepal. It is particularly found in certain areas of the Western Ghats, in the Karnataka-Kerala region, in the states of Gujrat, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa Andhra Pradesh Rajasthan, Tamilnadu, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Goa. Province of China^(2,3,4,5,6,)

Morphological classification:

Family: Fabaceae

Domain: Eukaryota

Kingdom: Plantae

Subkingdom: Viridaeplantae

Phylum: Magnoliophyta

Subphylum: Euphyllophytina

Class: Magnoliopsida

Subclass: Rosidae

Order: Fabales

Super order: Fabanae

Genus: Pterocarpus

Species: marsupium^(1,3,4,7,8,)

Vehicular names:

Assam. - Ajar^(1,4,7)

Assamese: Aajar⁽³⁾

Bengali -Piyasala, Pitasala^(1,3,4,7)

English - Indian Kino^,(3) Indian Malabar Kino, Gummy Kino ^(1,4,8) Indian Kino Tree⁽⁷⁾

Gujrati - Biyo Asana

Hindi - Bija, Bijasal, Vijayasara^(1,3,4,7)

Kannada: Bijasara, Asana

Kashmiri –LalChandeur,^(1,3,7)

Malayalam – Venga^,(1,3,4,7)

Marathi - Biyalalakda^,(1,8) Bibala

Punjabi – ChandanLal,Channanlal^(1,3,4,7)

Sanskrit - Pitasala, Asana, Sarfaka,^(1,4,8)Pijaka, Bijaka, Pitasara, Bijasara^(3,4)

Tamil – Vegaimaramchakkal Nengai Vengai,^(1,4,8)

Telugu – PaiddagiChekka, Yegi, Vegisa^(3,4,7)

Orissi –Piashala,

Urdu – Bijasar^(1,3,4,7)

Ayurvedic Profile:

Medicinal Properties:

Guna (Qualities) - Laghu (light to digest), Ruksha (dry)

Rasa (Taste) - Kashaya (astringent), Tikta (bitter)

Vipaka (post-digestive taste) - pungent

Veerya (Sheeta) - Coolant

Effect on tridosha – balances kapha and pitta dosha

Dosage – Decoction 50-100 ml; powder 3-6 gm⁽¹⁾

Plant Profile:

PM is 15-30 meters high tree. It is a medium to large sized tree reaching height up to 15-20 meter with dark brown to grey bark having swallow cracks. The bark exudes a red gummy substance called ‘Gum Kino’ when injured⁽⁹⁾ P. marsupium is a moderate to large sized deciduous tree with spreading branches, producing a straight clean bole⁽¹⁰⁾

Leaves:

leaflets 5-7, oblong, obtuse, emarginated, glabrous with round, smooth and waved petioles; stipules absent. Large and terminal panicles. Rounded peduncles and pedicels. Small, caduceus, solitary bracts^.(1) Leaves are 3 to 5 inch long, have 5-7 leaflets, oblong, margin wavy and obtuse. The petioles are round, smooth and waved from leaflet to leaflet, 5 or 6 inches long and there are no stipules^.(11)

Flower:

Numerous, white flowers with a yellowish tinge. Vexillum with a long, slender claw; sides reflexed, waved, curled and veined; keel two pettled^.(1) Flower about 1.5 cm long, very numerous, white, with a small tinge of yellow^.(11) Flowers are yellow in terminal panicles^.(9)

Seed:

stamens unlled, hairy ovary. Ascending style. Single and reniform seeds.⁽¹⁾ Seed is convex and bony. Tree flowers and fruits in the month of March to June⁽⁹⁾

Branches:

Crooked and stout stem with widely spreading branches. The heartwood is golden yellowish-brown with darker streaks and occurs as uneven pieces of erratic sizes and thickness.⁽¹⁾

Bark:

Tree bark yields a reddish gum. Stamens are 10, united near the base, but soon dividing into two parcels of 5 each; anthers are globose and 2-lobed^(4,11) Bark is about 1.25 cm thick, grey, rough, longitudinally fissured in small irregular scales, blaze pink with whitish markings and older trees exuding a blood red astringent gum resin.⁽¹⁰⁾

Fruit:

Fruit is circular, flat, winged pod.⁽⁹⁾The fruit circular, flat, winged pod. Seed is convex and bony.20 It gives flowers and fruits in the month of March to June.⁽⁴⁾

Pod:

The pods are light yellowish brown, nearly orbicular, 2.5-5 cm diameter, flat, winged containing 1-2 seeds, convex and bony, seeds are dolabriform, 1-1.25 cm long, reddish brown, fairly hard, with a smooth leathery testa. Under favourable conditions the tree attains a height of 33 m and a girth of 2.6 m or more.

Wood:

Wood is hard and durable. The sap wood is pale yellowish white or white, narrow, heart wood is golden yellowish brown with darker streaks, staining yellow when damp and turning darker on exposure, broadly inter locked grained, medium coarse textured, strong, tough, very hard and moderately heavy.⁽¹⁰⁾

Different parts of the plant P. marsupium. (A). Bark, (B). Leaves, (C). Heartwood, (D). Twig, (E). Small branches.

Chemical constituents:

Chemical structures of important phytoconstituents from P. marsupium:

Epicatechin (1), propterol (2), marsupin (3), liquiritigenin (4), isoliquiritigenin (5), isoliquiritin (6), pterosupin (7), pterostlbene (8), kinotannic acid (9), 2,6-dihydroxy-2-(phydroxybenzyl)-3(2H)-benzofuran-7-C-β-D-glucopyranoside (10), trans-stilbene (11), (-)-catechin (12), β-eudesmol (13), resorcinol (14), 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acidiisooctyl ester (15), 9,12-octadecadienoic acid (16), lupeol (17), pterocarposide (18), 6-hydroxy-3,5,7,4′-tetramethoxyflavone- rhamnoside (19), vijayosin (20).^{(1,3,4,5,6,8,9,10,11)}

Pharmacological activities:

Analgesic Activity:

Significant analgesic activity was shown -methanol extract being most potent followed by ethyl acetate and petroleum ether extracts⁽¹⁾ The ethyl acetate, petroleum ether and methanol leaf extracts of P. marsupium were evaluated for analgesic activity in Swiss albino mice. Improvement in writhing response of different extract was compared^.(3)

Anthelmintic activity:

The anthelmintic effect of ethyl acetate, ethanol, n-butanol and petroleum ether leaves extract of P. marsupium was analyzed by using Indian earthworms as trial worm.⁽¹²⁾

Anti-bacterial Activity:

The antibacterial activity of PM stem methanolic extract was tested against gram positive bacteria-Bacillus coagulans and gram negative bacteria- Escherichia coli using the paper disc diffusion method. 100mg/ml concentration significantly inhibited the growth of both the bacteria’s⁽¹⁾ Antimicrobial activity of bark and leaf extracts from P. marsupium. Hexane, ethyl acetate and methanol extracts were tested against four selected Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria. In vitro, it inhibits Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Streptococcus pyrogens and Staphylococcus aureus^.(13) Stem bark extract of Pterocarpus marsupium has shown antibacterial activity.⁽⁴⁾

Anti-cancer Activity:

Pterostilbene and Stilebene have been found to exhibit the anti-cancer potential. An investigation showed that Pterostilbene inhibited the cell proliferating factors like Akt, Bcl-2 and induced the mitochondrial apoptic signals like Bax, and the series of caspases⁽¹⁾Anticancer activity of pterostilbene, a constituent of plant of P. marsupium was evaluated in A-375, HCT-, Hep-G2, MDAMB- 231 and PC-3 cell lines by measuring cell viability after treatment with pterostilbene (1,10,50 and 100μg/ml). The IC50 of each cell line were 16.0μM (Hep-G2), 40.6 μM(MDA-MB-231), 45.3μM (HCT-116), 421μM (A-375), 3.9mM (PC-3). This study showed that pterostilbene high activity against Hep-G2 (liver) and HCT-116 (colon) cancers and it was not active in PC-3^.(3)

Anti-cataract Activity:

An investigation showed that the aqueous extract of PM bark reduced the opacity index in the alloxan induced diabetic rats, thus it possesses the anti-cataract activity⁽¹⁾ Vats et al. demonstrated the anti-cataract activity of the aqueous extract of Pterocarpus marsupium bark. This was evident from the decreased opacity index in the alloxan induced diabetic rats⁽⁸⁾Aqueous extract of Pterocarpus marsupium has shown anticataract activity. Aqueous extract had significantly decreased opacity index in the alloxan induced diabetic rats.⁽⁴⁾

Anti-diabetic Activity:

PM has been used as a highly potent anti-diabetic agent since ancient times. It possesses blood glucose lowering, beta cell protective and regenerative properties. Numerous experimental studies have been conducted on various animal species viz., rats, dogs, and rabbits to study the hypoglycemic effect of PM. The results have shown that PM restored the normal insulin secretion by reversing the damage to the beta cells and by repopulating the islets⁽¹⁾ Grover et al. reviewed the medicinal plants having anti diabetic potential and found Pterocaipus marsupium to be one of the promising plants^(7).

Anti-diarrheal Activity:

Ethanolic extract of Pterocarpus marsupium has shown antidiarrhoeal activity in castor oil and charcoal induced gastrointestinal motility test in rats^.(14) Ethanolic extract of P. marsupium heartwood (250 and 500 mg/kg b.wt.) significantly decreased the severity and frequency of charcoal and castor oil induced gastrointestina motility or diarrhea confirming the strength of traditional use of this plant as the modality for diarrhea^.(3)

Anti-fungal Activity:

PM showed beneficial effects as a topical agent against T.cruris and T. corporis. Good response was obtained within 3 days after first application⁽¹⁵⁾ A study was carried for 10 days in which after 7 and 10 days of therapy 78% and 93% excellent to good response was found from the alcoholic extract compared to 73% from the aqueous extract⁽³⁾

Anti-hyperlipidemic Activity:

Numerous natural products including PM have been screened for their hypolipidemic potential⁽¹⁾ Ethyl acetate extract of Pterocarpus marsupium has shown antihyperlipidaemic activity. Administration of Ethyl acetate extract for 14 consecutive days produced a significant reduction of serum triglyceride, total cholesterol, and LDL and VLDL-cholesterol levels without any significant effect on the level of HDL-cholesterol.⁽⁴⁾

Anti-hyperinsulinaemic and anti-hyper triglyceridaemic activity:

The aqueous extract of Pterocarpus marsupium bark substantially prevented insulin resistance (hyperinsulinaemia) and hypertriglyceridaemia⁽⁷⁾

Anti-inflammatory Activity:

PM is also a potent anti-inflammatory agent. Extract containing pterostilbene was investigated for its PGE2-inhibitory activity in LPS-stimulated PBMC and for COX-1/2 selective inhibitory activity⁽¹⁾ P.marsupium has also shown strong potential for its antiinflammatory activity. In this study, an extract of P.marsupium containing pterostilbene has been evaluated for its PGE2- inhibitory activity in LPS-stimulated PBMC⁽⁹⁾ Methanolic and aqueous extract of Pterocarpus marsupium has shown anti-inflammatory activity using carrageenan induced rat paw oedema method⁽⁴⁾

Anti-oxidant Activity:

The anti-oxidant potential of PM bark (aqueous, methanol and ethyl acetate extract) has been investigated with the aid of numerous antioxidant models, viz DPPH, ABTS, NO, OH, SO and inhibition of in vitro lipid peroxidation. The findings indicated the free radical scavenging potential of PM⁽¹⁾P.marsupium demonstrates unique pharmacological properties, which include beta cell protective and regenerative properties as well as blood glucose lowering activity. These effects have been reproduced in numerous animal and human trials conducted over the past fifty years.⁽⁸⁾Aqueous extract of Pterocarpus marsupium has shown antioxidant activity using various in vitro radical scavenging assays as well as by using liver slice cultures as a model system^.(4)

Antiulcer activity:

Methanolic heartwood extract of P.marsupium (750 mg/kg b.wt) lowers the blood glucose level in both normal rats and NIDDM rats. It saved the mucosa by influencing the increase in mucosal offensive (LPO and NO) factors and decrease in defensive factors (superoxide dismutase and catalase).⁽¹⁶⁾

Aphrodisiac Activity:

A review has stated the utility of PM as Vajikaran rasayana of Ayurveda or Aphrodisiac of Modern concept was stated the utility of P.marsupium as Vajikaran Rasayana of Ayurveda or Aphrodisiac of New concept^.(17)

Cardiotonic Activity:

The cardiotonic activity of aqueous extract of PM heartwood has been reported. 5, 7, 2-4 tetrahydroxy isoflavone 6-6 glucoside found in the extract is a potent antioxidant and have been supposed to be beneficial in cardiovascular diseases. The isolated frog heart perfusion technique was used to study the cardiotonic effect of highly diluted aqueous extract of PM^.(1) In one study, it was observed that at a very high dilution the aqueous extract of heartwood of Pterocarpus marsupium produced negative chronotropic and positive inotropic effects in frogs.⁽⁷⁾Cardiotonic activity was reported of the aqueous extract of heartwood of P. marsupium. This plant species contains 5,7,2-4 tetrahydroxy isoflavone 6-6 glucoside which are potent antioxidants and are believed to prevent cardiovascular diseases.⁽⁸⁾

CNS activity:

(-)-Epicatechin was separated from the bark and it was established for its action on CNS of rats, mice and frog. It was examined that (-)-epicatechin don’t have any effect on CNS of rats, mice and frog^.(3)

COX-2 Inhibition:

Hougee et al. performed a study in which a PGE 2 inhibitory effect of a commercially available extract of Pterocarpus marsupium, characterized by pterostilbene, was demonstrated. Pterocaipus marsupium extract decreases PGE 2 production indicating COX-2 specific inhibition P. marsupium extract evaluated for selective cyclo-oxygenase (COX-2) inhibitory action due to presence of pterostilbene. In a whole blood assay method, it is revealed that the dose of P. marsupium (450 mg/kg b.wt) did not reduce PGE2 production^.(7)

Genotoxic assessment:

It was studied that stem bark extract of P. marsupium administered to mice for longer period of time did not show any genotoxic activity^.(3)

Hepatoprotective Activity:

Methanolic extract of PM bark shows hepatoprotective Potential⁽¹⁾ In one study, it was demonstrated that the methanol extract of stem bark of Pterocarpus marsupium possesses hepatoprotective activity⁽⁷⁾ Methanolic extract of it at a dose of 100 and 300 mg per kg-bwt per day for 21 days dose dependently, had significantly decreased serum glucose level^.(18) Histology and liver biomarkers (serum protein, total bilirubin, alanine amino transaminase, alkaline phosphatase and aspartate amino transaminase) results shown that methanol and aqueous stem bark extracts (25m/kg per day per oral for 14 days) possesses significant hepatoprotective effect in carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) induced hepatotoxicity model^.(16)

Memory enhancing activity:

Dementia is a mental disorder characterized by loss of intellectual ability sufficiently severe as to interfere with one’s occupational or social activities and it invariably involves impairment of memory. Invariably involves impairment of memory. Centrally acting anti-muscarinic drugs (e.g. scopolamine) impair learning and memory both in animals (Higashida A. and Ogawa N., 1987) and human beings (Sitaramin et al., 1978). because of the harmful effects of these so used drugs, in the recent years, there has been a phenomenal rise in the interest of scientific community to explore the pharmacological action or to confirm veracity of claims made about herbs^.(6)

Microbicidal Activity:

Methanolic extract of Pterocarpus marsupium when treated with a solution shows microbicidal activity.⁽⁴⁾

Nootropic activity:

Methanolic extract of P. marsupium (25 and 50mg/kg p.o.) were administered in adult albino Swiss mice for neurotoxicity test for learning and memory. P. marsupium improved scopolamine induced amnesia with evidence increasing inflexion ratio and reduces transfer latency and improves the impairment of spatial memory induced by scopolamine as indicated by formation of reference and working memories⁽³⁾

Marketed Product:

DRF/AY/5001 composed of P. marsupium, Terminalia chebula, Emblica officinalis and Momordica charantia extracts; Diabecon composed of Pterocarpus marsupium, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Asparagus and Gymnema sylvestre extracts; Diabeta composed of Pterocarpus marsupium, Zingiber officinale, Acacia Arabica, Tinospora cordifolia, Curcuma langa, Gymnema sylvestre and Azadiractha indica extracts; and Silbinol containing P. marsupium bark and heartwood extracts are the differentmarketed formulations of P. marsupium.⁽¹⁹⁾

Microscopy:

Transverse section shows alternating bands of larger and smaller polygonal cells consisting of tracheids, fiber tracheids, xylem parenchyma and transversed by xylem rays. Xylem vessels are throughout distributed. Tyloses filled with tannins are present. Tracheids are long, thick walled with tapering ends and simple pits. Xylem parenchyma cells are rectangular with simple pits and xylem rays are uni-to-biseriate. The calcium oxalate crystals are present and the starch is absent.⁽⁴⁾

Uses:

Bark:

Astringent, toothache⁽⁸⁾ The bark and resin decoction is an astringent for severe diarrhea, dysentery, for the treatment of tumors of gland, urethral discharges, used on ringworm of the scalp and chronic ulcers, Abortifacient. The heartwood is astringent, bitter acrid, anti-inflammatory, and anti-helmintic, anodyne. It is good for elephantiasis, leucoderma, diarrhea, rectalgia, cough and grayness of hair. It is safe and effective in wounds, fever, stomach ache, diabetes, jaundice and anti-ulcer⁽⁴⁾.Diuretic, cholera, dysentery, stomachache, tongue diseases, urinary complaints and toothache, astringent, treatment of tumors of the gland, urethral discharges, chronic ulcers, abortifacient^.(3)

Gum:

Kino Diarrhea, dysentery, leucorrhoea, passive Haemorrhages^.(3,8)

Heartwood:

Control blood sugar level. Astringent, bitter acrid, anti-inflammatory, anthelmintic, anodyne⁽³⁾

Flower:

Fever^(3,8)

Leaf:

External application forboils, sores and skin diseases, stomach pain⁽⁸⁾

Leaves:

Fractures, constipation, hemorrhages skin diseases, depurative, ophthalmology, leprosy, rectalgia, and leucoderma, rheumatoid arthritis, skin diseases, external use for sores, boils, stomach pain and gastrointestinal disorders.

Stem :

problems.⁽³⁾

CONCLUSION:

The above is an interesting example of a plant used in traditional medicine for many years and the reported phytochemical and pharmacological studies supports its traditional uses and proved to be useful for clinical commercial studies. The multiple benefits of made it a true miracle of nature. Numerous studies have been conducted on different parts of the plant parts and has not yet developed as a drug by pharmaceutical industries. A detailed and systematic study is required for identification, cataloguing and documentation of plants, which may provide a meaningful way for the promotion of the traditional knowledge of the herbal medicinal plants. In view of the nature of the plant, more research work can be done on humans so that a drug with multifarious effects will be available in the future market.

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Received on 12.08.2019 Modified on 10.09.2019

Res. J. Pharmacognosy and Phytochem. 2019; 11(4):222-228.

DOI: 10.5958/0975-4385.2019.00038.4