This species which is native to Asia; has been introduced as a plantation tree in several countries, particularly in West Africa, South America and in Cote d’lvoire and Nigeria primarily for its timber yielding quality.^[^6,7]The species extends from the lower Himalayan course of the River Chenab (West Pakistan), India, Nepal, Sikkim, Assam, Ceylon throughout Burma to Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam and the southern provinces of China.^[8]

ECOLOGY

G. arborea is found in rainforest as well as dry deciduous forest. It tolerates a wide range of altitude approximately from 0 to 1,200 m and annual rainfall from 750 to 4000 mm. It is sun-loving plant; prefers temperature between 21-28°C.^[9]It requires moist, fertile, deep, well drained, base-rich soils with pH 5.0 to 8.0. It does not thrive well on thin, highly leached acid soils. ^[10]

PROPOGATION AND CULTIVATION

Gambhari can be propagated by seeds, cuttings and stumps. The best method of propagation is by seeds. In this mature fruits are soaked in water for a week and macerated to separate the seed from fleshy pulp. Then seeds are air-dried for 5-7 days. They can be stored at room temperature where they remain viable for about 2-3 months whereas at 4°C for about 3 years. Before sowing, seeds are soaked in tap water for 24 hours. Then seeds are sown in nursery bed which is made by a mixture of sand and loamy soil. Seeds germinate within 2-3 weeks and are ready for transplanting to polybags of size 10 × 15 cm, when the first pair of leaves appears. After about 6 months when seedlings reach up to a height of30-45 cm, they are ready for planting in the field, in dug holes. The usual spacing in the field ranges from 2.5 m × 2.5 to 3.5 × 3.5 m. Because G. arborea is shade-intolerant and sensitive to competition, 3-4weeding is required during the first 2 years of growth. To improve growth and survival; fertilizers are applied at the rate of 100 kg/hectare once at about 30 days after out planting and second time after 90 days. Flowering take places during February to April when the tree is more or less leafless and fruiting starts from May to June. Mature fruits are collected after they have fallen to the ground or by shaking the branches. The tree grows fast; 1-2 m per year commonly on deep alluvial river soils and at altitude of about 450-1000 m. It may be ready for harvesting after 4 or 5 years. It is a short-lived tree but with good soil condition, proper care and maintenance; it is capable of surviving from 30 to 40 years. ^{[11, 12]}

MACROSCOPIC CHARACTERS

Gmelina arborea is beautiful fast growing, moderate to large unarmed, deciduous tree up to 30 m tall with girth of 1.2 to 4.5 m and a clear bole of9-15 m. Gamhar tree standing straight having branches on top and thick foliage forming a conical crown on the top of the tall stem. ^[13]Branchlets and young parts are clothed with fine white pubescent.

Leaves:

Leaves are petiolate, the petioles 5-15 cm long, leaf blades broadly ovate, 10-25 × 7.5-18 cm. Leaves are simple, opposite, cordate, glandular, glabrous above and fulvous-tomentose beneath.

Figure 1. Leaf of Gmelina arborea Roxb. As shown in figure leaves are heart-shaped, having broadly ovate blade and long petiole.

Flowers:

Flowers abundant, short stalked, hairy, trumpet shaped and 4-5 cm long brownish yellow in terminal panicle. Inflorescences fulvous-tomentose throughout, the bracts linear to linear-lanceolate; calyx broadly campanulate, 5- toothed; corolla showy, having 4 stamens, exserted.

Figure 2. Flower of Gmelina arborea Roxb.

Flowers of Gambhari are funnel shaped, tubular below. The upper lip often orange-pink, deeply divided into 2 oblong, backwardly curled lobules and the lower lip often lemon-yellow, up to twice as long as the upper and 3-lobed.

Fruits:

Fruits are fleshy ovoid drupes, 2-2.5 cm long, aromatic, orange yellow when ripe; 1-2 seeded. ^{[14, 15]}

Figure 3. Fruits of Gmelina arborea Roxb.

Figure showing fruits of Gambhari hanging on twig; ovoid in shape, seated on the enlarged calyx, glossy and yellow in colour because of riping.

Barks:

The mature rootbark yellowish in colour when fresh. Dried pieces are curved and channelled. External surface is rugged due to presence of vertical cracks, ridges, fissures and lenticles. Mature stem bark occurs as flat and slightly curved pieces. The external surface is slightly rough due to the presence of a few cracks, ridges, etc. Fracture is short and granular.^[16]

Figure 4. Stem bark of Gmelina arborea Roxb.

As shown in figure bark of Gambhari are smooth, pale ashy-grey or grey to yellow with black patches and conspicuous corky circular lenticels.

MICROSCOPIC CHARACTERS

Leaf:

Transverse section (T.S.) of leaf of Gmelina arborea shows following characters:-

Lamina:

It is dorsiventral. Upper epidermis is single layered with polygonal cells covered outside with a thick walled cuticle and covering trichomes. Anomocytic stomata are also present. Mesophyll is differentiated into single layer of palisade cells and thin walled, 3 to 6 layers of loosely arranged spongy parenchyma. Lower epidermis is very similar to upper epidermis but shows more number of anomocytic stomata and uni or multi-cellular (2-3 celled) trichomes.

Midrib:

Epidermal layers of lamina are in continuity with that of midrib. The dorsal surface and ventral surface are bulged. Below the upper epidermis and above the lower epidermis, 2-4 layered collenchyma cells are present. Two small vascular bundles can be seen below the upper collenchymatous layer of midrib. The rest of midrib is occupied by the cortical parenchyma and collateral vascular bundles. Xylem is towards the centre and phloem towards the periphery. Vascular bundles are surrounded by incomplete sheath of pericycle. Ground tissue is present in the centre of vascular bundle.

Powder characteristic:

Powdered dried leaves are green in colour, bitter in taste and have characteristic odour. Powder microscopy shows presence of anomocytic stomata, covering trichomes, spiral xylem vessels, lamina fragments and mesophyll.^[^17]

Bark:

T.S. of mature root bark has 10-18 layers of rectangular cells of cork. Phelloderm is composed of parenchyma and groups of stone cells. The secondary phloem consists of parenchyma, groups of stone cells, sieve tube elements and medullary rays. In T.S. of mature stem bark, cork is made up of 20-23 layers of slightly thick-walled lignified cells. Phelloderm is parenchymatous and contains stone cells. Parenchyma cells contain acicular crystals of calcium oxalate, starch grains, oil globules and resins.^[16]

Powder characteristic:

Powdered root bark is yellowish brown in colour. It shows number of stone cells, cone shaped sclereids, lignified stone cells in groups or isolated isodiametric, circular to squarish in shape with thick or thin walled pitted lumen and striated walls. Powder is full of starch grains which are simple or compound with central hilum, acicular and rod shaped prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. Powdered stem bark is brown in colour, shows cork cells in surface view, thin walled parenchymatous cells, fragment of a non-lignified fibre which are aseptate or septate with wide lumen. Similar to powder of root bark; it also shows cone shaped sclereid, lignified stone cells in groups cells with pitted lumen and striated wall, oval shaped starch grains and prismatic crystals.^[18]

TRADITIONAL THERAPEUTIC USES

Gambhari is one of the herb mentioned in all ancient scriptures of Ayurveda, having unlimited medicinal value. It is traditionally used externally as well as internally in number of ailments related to central nervous, gastro-intestinal, circulatory, respiratory, urinary and reproductive systems.

Leaves:

Leaf paste is applied to relieve headache and juice as wash for foul gastric ulcers.^[19] Leaves are demulcent; used to remove worms. The leaves are also used in dyspepsia, cough and wound treatment. ^[20] Because of cooling and soothing actions, fresh juice of leaves is massaged to mitigate the burning sensation of the body. Leaves are used as diuretic and with milk and sugar recommended in inflammatory condition of gonorrhoea and catarrh of urinary bladder. ^[21]Charakaprescribed a paste of leaves as ingredient of a medicated clarified butter for stiffness of back and facial paralysis.^[22]

Flowers:

Flowers are acrid, refrigerant, sweet, bitter, astringent and useful in leprosy and blood diseases.^[23]

Fruits:

The cold infusion of fruits is extremely beneficial in fever of pitta origin and bilious affections. ^[19] Soup of fruit is given in diarrhoea. Chakraduta gave ripe fruits with honey for checking haemorrhages. Ripe fruits are dried and cooked with cow’s milk for urticaria.^[22] Ripe fruit is cardiotonic hence useful in cardiac disorders and is a nutritive tonic, so it is beneficial as anabolic in tuberculosis to hasten the healing of cavitations in the lungs and cachexia. Fruits are diuretic hence its juice is given in dysuria, gonorrhoea and cystitis to relieve pain and swelling. Besides being a galactogogue, the fruit is aphrodisiac; also used in semen debility and to prevent miscarriage. Fruit has potential as brain and hair tonic.^[24]

Roots:

The roots are acrid, bitter tonic, demulcent, stomachic, laxative, anasarca and anti-bilious. Pulverised root is applied for gout. In the form of infusion or decoction it is used in fever and indigestion. ^[18]With liquorice, sugar and honey it is given as galactogogue in cases of scanty secrection of milk in women.^[21]The root of G. arborea is one of the ingredients of “dashmuladikwath” and “bhrihatpanchamool” of ayurveda, which constitutes a number of ayurvedic preparations used as tonics. Root as aperients improves appetite, used in constipation. It is also helpful in diarrhoea and haemorrhoids.^[24]Roots alleviate vata and kapha, have hot potency and heavy attribute. It is used against anthrax, bites, cholera, colic, convulsions, dropsy, epilepsy, headache, intoxication, rheumatism, sore throat, burning sensations and snakebite. The roots are also useful in hallucination, piles and urinary discharge. ^[25,
26]

Bark:

The bark is a bitter tonic, stomachic and useful in fever and indigestion. The powder of bark along with gingelly seeds, manjista and shatavari is given in milk, to prevent abortions in the early stages of pregnancy.^[19]The root bark is used internally in oedema due to any cause; its decotion is given in postpartum disorders. It has nutritive and rejuvenating properties. The bark has been known to be used externally and internally for snake-bites and scorpion-stings.^[24]The decoction of root bark is used for washing and healing of septic wounds. ^[27]

Chemical constituents:

A large number of phytochemicals have been isolated from Gambhari, which include lignans, flavanoids, coumarins, saponins, steroids, terpenes, fatty acids and glycosides.

Leaves:

From leaves iridoid glycosides,luteolin,apigenin, quercetagetin, glycosides of kaempferol, quercetin, hentriacontanol and β-sitosterol have been isolated. ^{[28, 29, 30]}In aerial parts of Gmelina arborea three iridoid glycosides 6-O-(3′′-O-benzoyl)-α-1-rhamnopyranosylcatapol, 6-O-(3′′-O-trans-cinnamoyl)-α-l-rhamnopyranosylcatapol and 6-O-(3′′-O-cis-cinnamoyl)-α-l-rhamnopyranosylcatapol were isolated by Tiwari el al.^[31]

Fruits:

Fruit contains butyric acid, tartaric acid in traces and resinous and saccharine substances. ^[32] The fruit oil is rich in aliphatic alcohols such as (Z)-3-hexenol (17.9%), 1-octen-3-ol (8.4%) and hexanol (6.1%). The oil also shows presence of heptacosane (5.6%), pentacosane (3.8%) and 1-pentacosane (3.2%) like hydrocarbons; and nonanal (8.7%) and (E)-2-decenal (3.0%) as aldehyde constituents.^[33]

Seeds:

Seeds contain protein, fats, fibre and carbohydrate. Calcium and magnesium like minerals and phytate are also abundant in seed. It is hoped that if these seeds are adequately processed, they would be good for nutritional purposes especially as livestock feed.^[34]

Roots:

Roots contain viscid oil, resin, alkaloid, benzoic acid, gmelinol, hentriacontanol, ceryl alcohol, octacosanol, β-sitosterol and cadinane type furanosesquiterpene-gmelofuran.^[35] Other phytochemicals isolated are apigenin, apiosylskimmin, gmelinol, arboreol^[^36] and coumarin derivatives umbelliferone-7-apiosylglucoside.^[37]

Heartwood:

Extraction of heartwood has yielded n-hexacosanol, n-octacosanol, ceryl alcohol, cluytylferulate, β-sitosterol and a number of lignans including gmelinol, oxodihydrogmelinol, arboreol, isoarboreol, methyl arboreal,^[35]gummadiol,^[38]gmelanone. ^[39] Some of new hydroxylignans identified from heartwood are 4-hydroxysesamin; 4, 8-dihydroxysesamin; 1, 4-dihydroxysesamin; 4-hydroxytetrahydrofuran derivative, 2-piperonyl-3-hydroxymethyl-4-(α-hydroxy-3, 4-methylenedioxybenzyl)-4-hydroxytetrahydrofuran and 4-O-glucoside of 4-epigummodiol.^[40]In addition 2, 3, 4-trisubstituted tetrahydrofuranlignan; arborone and 7-oxo-dihydrogmelinol and two furofuranlignan; paulowin acetate and epieudesmin were isolated along with methyl trans-p-methoxycinnamate and trans-p-hydroxycinnamic acid.^[41]

Bark:

Bark contains lignans namely tyrosol, balanophonin and gmelinol. Other compounds isolated from it include 2, 6-dimethoxy-p-benzoquinone, 3, 4, 5-trimethoxyphenoland a new phenylethanoid glycoside which was identified as (−)-p-hydroxyphenylethyl [5′′′-O-(3, 4-dimethoxycinnamoyl)-β-d-apiofuranosyl (1′′′→6′)]-β-d-glucopyranoside.^[42]

Figure 5. Structure of Gmelinol. Gmelinol is lignan isolated from root, heartwood and bark of Gmelina arboreaRoxb.

Figure 6. Structure of Arboreol. Root and heartwood of Gambhariabundantly shows presences of arboreol.

Figure 7. Structure of Gummadiol. Gummadiol is chemically one type of lignan found in heartwood of Gambhari.

PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIVITY

Anti-oxidant activity

Ghosh et al. evaluated anti-oxidant activity of methanolic extract of stem barks of Gmelina arboreaRoxb. (MEGA) using the free radical scavenging activity assay by 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl(DPPH) method, reducing power assay, nitric oxide scavenging activity, hydroxyl radical scavenging activity and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) scavenging activity. At concentration of 100μg/ml the DPPH and H₂O₂scavenging activity was found comparable with standard ascorbic acid at same concentration. The reducing power of MEGA was found very potent, as it reduced the most Fe³⁺ ions, but lesser than Ascorbic acid. The results indicated that MEGA is a significant source of natural anti-oxidant, which might be useful in preventing the progress of various oxidative stresses. ^[43]

Hepatoprotective activity

The effect of aqueous extracts of bark and fruit of Gmelina arborea on paraquat and hydrogen peroxide induced oxidative stress was investigated using liver slice culture. Both paraquat and hydrogen peroxide were found to be cytotoxic as measured by release of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) from liver slice culture. Addition of bark and fruit extracts along with these cytotoxic agents led to a decrease in LDH release. Activity of three antioxidant enzymes namely superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione reductase were found to increase by aqueous extracts of bark and fruit. Hence results indicate that both extracts protect liver by alleviating oxidative stress induced damage to liver cells.^[44]

Hepato and renal protective action in hepatic and renal insufficiency

The effect of aqueous and ethanolic extracts of Gmelina arborea stem bark and leaves were studied in hepatic and renal insufficiency in rats induced by paracetamol (200mg/kg b.w.; i.p.) and cisplatin (5mg/kg b.w.; i.p.) respectively given for 9 days. In this study the leaf samples were divided into two portions; one portion air-dried for 10 days and the other oven-dried at 60°C for 2 days. Similarly stem bark were also divided into 2 portions and dried in same manner. All the extracts were found effective in lowering activities of the SGOT and SGPT enzymes; and the levels of serum creatinine and urea. But phytochemical screening reveals that there were relative increment in the percent compositions of tannin, saponin, phytate and carbohydrate in the oven-dried leaf samples as compared to air-dried leaf samples. Except for carbohydrate, same trend was observed for oven-dried stem bark compared to air-dried one. It is also observed that there was reduction in the levels of cyanogenic glycosides and carbohydrates in oven-dried stem bark. This suggests the heat lability of the glycosides and carbohydrates. The results of the experiment suggest potential of G. aborea extracts in ameliorating effect on hepatic and renal insufficiency caused by paracetamol and cisplantin respectively, and any inherent toxicity may be reduced or eliminated through adequate heat treatment. ^[45]

Anti-microbial activity

Determination of anti-microbial activity using the agar diffusion method showed that the crude aqueous, ethanolic, hexane, chloroform extracts of the leaves and stem bark of the gambhari inhibit the growth of pathogenic bacteria such as Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonieae, Proteus mirabilis, Shigella dysenteriea and Salmonella typhi that frequently show above average resistance. The extent of inhibition depended on the solvent and organism. It was found that activity of the extracts were consistently less than the conventional anti-biotic tetracycline, the effectiveness of the extracts was more in the acidic than in alkaline conditions and increased with increase in temperature. Results provided the scientific bases for ways the plant can be used as source for newer anti-biotic for the possible control of dysentery, diarrhoea, typhoid fever and wound infections associated with these bacteria.^[46]

Anti-pyretic and analgesic activity

Wistar strain albino rats with yeast induced pyrexia were administered with benzene, chloroform, ethanolic and aqueous extracts of plant Gmelina arborea (420mg/kg) to evaluate the anti-pyretic activity. The aqueous and ethanolic extracts of bark exhibited significant antipyretic activity, 1 hour after administration as compared to the standard drug paracetamol (50mg/kg body weight). Whereas chloroform and benzene extract reduced the temperature 3hours after administration but have mild effects. However the analgesic activity of extracts was found to be more significant on acetic acid induced test than tail flick test as compared to standard diclofenac sodium (25mg/kg body weight) and thus it appear that the test compounds inhibit predominantly the peripheral pain mechanism.^[47]

Anti-diabetic activity

The ethanolic extract of Gmelina arborea bark at dose 420mg/kg was found to reduce the increased blood sugar in streptozotacin (50mg/kg) induced diabetes in male wistar albino rats. Possible mechanism suggested that ethanolic extract increases blood glutathione (GSH) levels, hence reinforcing the role of GSH as free radicals scavenger and in repair of free radical caused biological damage.^[48]

Anthelmintic activity

In-vitro experiment was conducted to evaluate the possible anthelmintic effects of crude alcoholic and water extracts of leaves of Gambhari using Pheretimaposthuma and Ascardiigalli worms. Three concentrations 25, 50 and 100mg/ml of each extracts were studied which involved the determination of the time of paralysis and time of death of the worm. Both extracts exhibited anthelmintic activity in dose dependent manner giving shortest time of paralysis and death compared to piperazine with 100mg/ml against Pheretimaposthuma and Ascardiigalli worms.^[49]

Cardioprotective activity

Effect of ethanolic extract of leaves of G. arborea showed potential protective effect against doxorubicin 20mg/kg body weight induced cardiac toxicity in rats. It was found that ethanolic extract increases activities of cardiac markers such as serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT), serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase (SGPT) and alkaline phosphate (ALP) in plasma and significantly inhibits doxorubicin-provoked glutathione depletion in cardiac tissues. The reductions of cardiac activities of catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase were significantly mitigated. Results have shown that pre-treatment with ethanolic extract of leaves of G. arborea guarded against doxorubicin-induced rise of serum lactate dehydrogenase and alleviated histo-pathological changes in rat’s hearts treated with doxorubicin. Hence this shows that Gambhari protects against doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity in rats.^[50]

Diurectic activity

The methanolic extract of whole plant of G. Arborea have shown significant diuretic activity on albino rats which appeared to be comparable to that produce by standard furocemide. The method of Lipschitz was followed for the evaluation of diuretic activity. The test extracts were given in dose of 250mg/kg and 500mg/kg body weight it was found that sodium, potassium and chloride ions output in urine markedly increased as compared to normal saline. There was also an increase in ratio of concentration of excreted sodium and potassium ions after extract treatment, which shows that it doesn’t cause hypokalemia.^[51]

Immunomodulary activity

Effect of methanolic extract of G.arborea and its ethyl acetate fraction have been evaluated on humoral and cell-mediated immune response using animal model like cyclophosphamide-induced myelosuppression, delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) response and humoral antibody (HA) titre. Both test extracts 300 and 500mg/kg methanolic extract and 50 and 100mg/kg ethyl acetate fraction produced significant increase in DTH response, HA titre and levels of total white blood cell count. Also test doses found to normalize the levels of neutophils and lymphocytes and increase the total WBC count, which is lower by cytotoxic drug cyclophosphamide indicating immunostimulant activity.^[52]

Antihypertensive activity

Wansi et al. investigated the effects of the aqueous extract of the leaves of G. arborea on some oxidative stress parameters, on blood pressure (b. p.) and on the vascular response of isolated rat aorta. The extract (150 mg/kg and 300mg/kg) have shown protective effect by increasing significantly the levels of antioxidants namely superoxide dismutase, catalase, nitric oxide. The extract exhibited vascular relaxant action on aortic rings isolated from normotensive rats were precontracted with phenylephrine 5µM. For inducing high b.p. the rats were given high sodium chloride solution (9% NaCl) for a total 2 months; daily and by gastric intubations. Antihypertensive effects of the aqueous extract in salt loaded hypertensive rats; at doses of 30 and 50 mg/kg significantly decrease the b. p. 15.48 and 24.39 % respectively; which was sustained for about 30 min. ^[53]

Anti-ulcer activity

The effect of hydroalcoholic extracts of leaves of Gmelina arborea on gastric ulcers was evaluated by using different experimental models such as aspirin-induced ulcer, pylorus ligation induced ulcer, ethanol-induced ulcers and cold restrain stress induced ulcers in rats. The extracts at doses 286 mg/kg and 667 mg/kg showed a significant anti-ulcer activity and healing of gastric ulcers in all models. From statistical analysis of data which were obtained in all four models; it was concluded that extract provides maximum protection in ethanol induced ulcer.^[54]

In one another experimental study, the anti-ulcer activity of Gmelina arborea was evaluated in rats by taking methanolic extract of plant (MEGA). The models used were pyrolus ligation induced ulcer and ethanol induced ulcer in wistar albino rats. MEGA at doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg produce significant inhibition of the gastric lesions induced in both the models. The extract showed significant reduction in gastric volume, free acidity and ulcer index as compare to control.^[55]

CONCLUSION:

In the present review we have made an attempt to compile the botanical, phytochemical, ethno-pharmacological, pharmacological information on Gmelina arborea, a medicinal herb used in the Indian system of medicine. In order to scientifically validate its traditional therapeutic claim and even postulate the possible mechanisms involved in its actions number of research on this herb had done and still going on. Further study needed to investigate bioactive molecules responsible for such health beneficial action of Gmelina arborea. This review will definitely help for the researchers as well as practitioners, dealing with this plant.

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Received on 12.02.2013

Modified on 01.03.2013

Accepted on 06.03.2013

Research Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 5(2): March-April 2013, 69-76