Pepper became an important spice that catalyzed much of the spice trade. This not only led to exploration of many undiscovered lands, but also to the development of major merchant cities in Europe and the Middle East⁴.

Today, the major commercial producers of pepper are India and Indonesia.⁹

Description:

Black pepper comes from the berries of the pepper plant. Black pepper, green pepper and white peppercorns are actually the same fruit (Piper nigrum); the difference in their color is a reflection of varying stages of development and processing methods.

Black peppercorns are made by picking the pepper berries when they are half ripe and just about to turn red. They are then left to dry which causes them to shrivel and become dark in color. Alternatively, green peppercorns are picked while still unripe and green in color, while white peppercorns are picked when very ripe and subsequently soaked in brine to remove their dark outer shell leaving just the white pepper seed⁶.

Pink peppercorns are actually from a completely different plant species (Schinus molle) that is related to ragweed.

Black pepper is the most pungent and flavorful of all types of peppers and it is available as whole or cracked peppercorns or ground into powder. ⁹

PHARMACOGNOSY:

Vernacular names:

Sansk. : Pippali, Maricha,Ushana

Assam : Jalu

Beng. : Gol Morich, Kalo Marich

Eng. : Black pepper

Guj. : Kala Mari

Hindi. : Kali Mirch

Kan. : Kare menasu

Mal. : Karumaluku, Nallamaluku

Mar. :Kali Mirch, Mire

Tam. : Milagu

Tel. : Miriyalu

Urdu. : Kali Mirch, Siah Mirch.

Kashmiri : Marutis.^{8, 10}

a) Macroscopic character: The colour of drug is blakish-brown or greyish-black. It is aromatic and pungent. The berries are 3.5-6mm in diameter, globular and coarsly-reticulately wrinkled with remains of stigma at apex. The pericarp is thin with a single white kernel. The kernel is hollow at the centre, entirely consisting of perisperm and a small endosperm and embryo.¹¹

b) Microscopic character: The transverse section of drug shows tabular epidermal cells followed by thin walled parenchymatous hypodermis with rectangular stone cells. The inner pericarpic layer brown coloured and is made up of sclerenchyma. Seed coat layer is attached to it and is reddish-brown. Pericarp and perisperm contains oil glands and abundant starch grains are also present.¹¹

Identity, Purity and Strength:

Foreign matter : not more than 2 Percent

Total ash : not more than 4 Percent

Acid-insoluble ash : not more than 1 Percent

Alcohol-soluble extractive : not less than 2.5 Percent

Loss on drying : not less than 60 Percent

Volatile Oil : not less than 0.1 Percent.

PHYTOCHEMISTRY:

Pepper contains the alkaloids like piperine (5-9%), Volatile oil (1-2.5%), is responsible for the aroma of pepper and comprises of terpenes, like α- and ẞ-pinene, dipentene, Phenllandrene and sesquiterpenes., pungent resin (6%), Piperidine and starch (30%). The pepper volatile oil which is yellowish in colour contains mainly L- Phenllandrene and caryophyllene. The resinous content along piperine also contributes to the pungency of the drug.¹²

Black Pepper Constituents⁵:

Piperitone, C₁₀H₁₆O; piperine, C₁₇H₁₉NO₃, 3.15%~4.82%.
Black pepper is an excellent source of manganese, a very good source of iron and vitamin K, and a good source of dietary fiber.

Piperine, which is identical in composition to morphia, volatile oil, a resin called Chavicin. Its medicinal activities depends mainly on its pungent resin and volatile oil, which is colourless, turning yellow with age, with a strong odour, and not so acrid a taste as the peppercorn; it also contains starch, cellulose and colouring.

Main constituents⁵: Black pepper contains about 3% essential oil, whose aroma is dominated (max. 80%) by monoterpenes hydrocarbons: sabinene, beta-pinene, limonene, furthermore terpinene, alpha-pinene, myrcene, delta3-carene and monoterpene derivatives (borneol, carvone, carvacrol, 1,8-cineol, linalool). Sesquiterpenes make up about 20% of the essential oil: beta-caryophyllene, humulene,beta-bisabolone and caryophyllene oxide and ketone. Phenylether (eugenol, myristicin, safrole) are found in traces. Loss of monoterpenes due to bad storage conditions (especially for ground pepper) should be avoided.

The most importants odorants organoleptically in black pepper are linalool, alpha-phellandrene, limonene, myrcene and alpha-pinene; furthermore, branched-chain aldehydes were found (3-methylbutanal, methylpropanal). The musty flavour of old pepper is attributed to the formation of heterocyclic compounds (2-isopropyl-3-methoxypyrazine, 2,3-diethyl-5-methylpyrazine) in concentrations of about 1 ppb. (Eur. Food Res. Technol., 209, 16, 1999)

The essential oil of white pepper has received less attention; the content of essential oil is lower (1%), and the most abundant compounds are monoterpene hydrocarbons: limonene, beta-pinene, alpha-pinene and alpha-phellandrene. Organoleptically most important are linalool (although ocurring as a minor component), limonene, alpha-pinene and phenylpropanoids (eugenol, piperonal); furthermore, short-chain aldehydes and carboxylic acids have been found important. In overstored white pepper, scatole is formed (2 ppm) and imparts an unpleasant, faecal flavour. (Eur. Food Res. Technol., 209, 27, 1999).

The pungent principle in pepper is an alkaloid-analog compound, piperine; it is the amide of 5-(2,4-dioxymethylene-phenyl)-hexa-2,4-dienoic acid (piperinic acid) with azinane (piperidine); only the trans,trans conformer contributes to pepper's pungency. Several piperine-analogs have been isolated from black pepper where the acid carbon backbone is partially hydrogenated (piperanine) or two carbon atoms longer (piperettine); amides of piperinic acid with pyrrolidine (piperyline) or isobutylamine (piperlongumine) have also been isolated. Total content of piperine-analogs in black pepper is about 5%.

Black pepper contains a volatile oil (including beta-bisabolene, camphene, beta-caryophyllene, and many other terpenes and sesquiterpenes), up to 9% alkaloids (especially piperine, largely responsible for the herb's acrid taste), about 11 % proteins, and small amounts of Minerals. White pepper contains very little volatile oil.

Nutritional Constituents:

The Nutritional value of black pepperis given in table-1.

Table 1: Nutritional value of black pepper¹³

Nutrient	Amount	DV (%)	Nutrient	World Healthiest Foods Rating
Manganese	0.24 mg	12.0	19.9	Excellent
vitamin K	6.88 mcg	8.6	14.3	Very Good
Iron	1.24 mg	6.9	11.4	Very Good
dietary fiber	112 g	4.5	7.4	Good

BLACK PEPPER PREPARATION:

There are different black pepper preparation viz Black pepper oil macerate, Black pepper essential oil, Black pepper powder, Black pepper extract showing in Flow Chart:

Dosages of Black Pepper⁵:

Black Pepper, 5 to 15 grains in powder. Piperine, 1 to 8 grains. 2-4 g. The root of the Pepper plant in India has been used by the natives as a cordial tonic and stimulant. Used either as an ingredient of boluses or powder or as seasonings in decoction for internal use. When grinded into powder for oral administration, a dosage of 0.5-1 g. is recommended. Use an adequate amount externally.
B.P. dose of Pepper, 1 to 2 drachms. Oleoresin, U.S.P.: dose, 1/2 grain.

A single dose ranges from 300-600 mg. Daily dose of 1500 mg#. Homeopathic recommendations for irritation of mucous membranes and galactorrhea are 5-10 drops, 1 tablet or 5-10 globules 1-3 times daily or from D4:1 mL injectable solution subcutaneously 2 times weekly (Gruenwald et al., 2000). For the treatment of hemorrhoids, 5-15 whole peppercorns are recommended to be taken (Duke et al., 2002). For congestion, cold, head cold, spice chicken soup with black pepper can be taken (Rinzler, 1990).

The average daily dose of the berries is stated to be 1 to 3 g as a decoction, powder or pills, for the treatment of dyspepsia, vomiting, diarrhea and colic resulting from cold (Nguyen and Doan, 1989).

Beneficial effects of Blackpepper:

Black pepper as: Improve Digestion and Promote Intestinal Health⁵:

Black pepper (Piper nigrum)stimulates the taste buds in such a way that an alert is sent to to the stomach to increase hydrochloric acid secretion, thereby improving digestion. Hydrochloric acid is necessary for the digestion of proteins and other food components in the stomach. When the body's production of hydrochloric acid is insufficient, food may sit in the stomach for an extended period of time, leading to heartburn or indigestion, or it may pass into the intestines, where it can be used as a food source for unfriendly gut bacteria, whose activities produce gas, irritation, and/or diarrhea or constipation.

Black pepper has long been recognized as a carminitive, (a substance that helps prevent the formation of intestinal gas), a property likely due to its beneficial effect of stimulating hydrochloric acid production. In addition, black pepper has diaphoretic (promotes sweating), and diuretic (promotes urination) properties.

Black pepper has demonstrated impressive antioxidant and antibacterial effects--yet another way in which this wonderful seasoning promotes the health of the digestive tract. And not only does black pepper help you derive the most benefit from your food, the outer layer of the peppercorn stimulates the breakdown of fat cells, keeping you slim while giving you energy to burn.

Black pepper as: Spice: Black pepper is used in almost all applications meats, poultry, snack foods etc. Both black and white pepper are used in cuisine worldwide, at all stages of the cooking process and as a table condiment. White pepper has a distinguishably different flavor but is utilized to a lesser extent. Where spice is used, with exception of baked goods. It is used universally in sauces, gravies, processed

Black pepper as: Anti –inflammatory⁵: Piperine acted on early acute changes in inflammatory processes and chronic granulative changes. It also acted partially through stimulation of pituitary adrenal axis (Mujumdar et al, 1990).

Black pepper as: Vitamins and Phytonutrients:

Black pepper might not be thought of as a vitamin-containing food, but it does contain many vitamins and phytonutrients. Black pepper is high in vitamin K and also contains beta-carotene, beta-cryptoxanthin, choline, folic acid, lycopene, niacin, pyridoxine, riboflavin, thiamine, and vitamins A, C and E. Many of these vitamins have antioxidant properties, helping to reduce the harmful effects of free radicals on the body and helping to prevent cancerous changes to cells.

Blackpepperas:Carminitive⁵:
Black pepper has long been recognized as a carminitive, (a substance that helps prevent the formation of intestinal gas), a property likely due to its beneficial effect of stimulating hydrochloric acid production. In addition, black pepper has diaphoretic (promotes sweating), and diuretic (promotes urination) properties.

Black pepper as :Antioxidant and Antibacterial effects⁵:
Black pepper has demonstrated impressive antioxidant and antibacterial effects--yet another way in which this wonderful seasoning promotes the health of the digestive tract. And not only does black pepper help you derive the most benefit from your food, the outer layer of the peppercorn stimulates the breakdown of fat cells, keeping you slim while giving you energy to burn.

Pepper Applications⁵:
Black pepper as : To treat cold pain in the abdomen, vomiting and diarrhea due to stomach-cold⁵:
a) Abdominal pain and vomiting due to stomach-cold: This herb can be ground alone into powder and stewed together with pig stomach or used with lesser galangal (Rhizoma Alpiniae Officinarum), long pepper (Fructus Piperis Longi), etc., for oral administration. Or, immerse some pepper in vinegar. Then take it out and dry under sunlight. Repeat the process 7 times. Grind the pepper into powder. Administer 3 g, twice daily.

b) Diarrhea due to deficiency-cold in the spleen and stomach: This herb can be used together with evodia fruit, largehead atractylodes rhizome (Radix Atractylodis Macrocephalae), etc., and it can also be ground alone into powder for application onto the umbilical region.

Black pepper as : To warm up cold of wind-cold type⁵: Prepare pepper and clove, each 3 g. Grind them as powder. Use 2 white bulbs from Chinese onion and pound, then mix with the prepared powder. Put a small mass onto the palm. Close both palms together and put the closed hands in between the two thighs until one sweats.

Black pepper as : To treat epilepsy⁵: This herb can be ground together with long pepper (Fructus Piperis Longi) in an equal amount for oral administration, or the pepper is placed in turnip and dried in the air and ground into powder for oral administration in the manner described in the book 'Recipes for Emergency'. In addition, it can induce appetite and digestion if used as a seasoning.

Black pepper as: For dyspepsia (indigestion) in children⁵: Grind 1 g white pepper as powder and 9 g glucose powder. Mix them together. Administer 0.3-0.8 g (<1 year old), 0.5-1.5 g (< 3 years old), three times daily, 1-3 days for a therapeutic course.

Black pepper as: Anti-Fungal.⁵: P. nigrum essential oil was most active against S. cerevisiae (Hector et al, 2004).

Black pepper as : Anti-Neoplatic.⁵: Simultaneous administration of piperine with tumour induction produced a significant reduction (95.2%) in tumour nodule formation induced by B16F-10 melanoma cells in C57BL/6 mice. Increased lung collagen hydroxyproline (22.37 ug/mg protein) in the metastasized lungs of the control animals compared to normal animals (0.95 ug/mg protein) was significantly reduced (2.59 ug/mg protein) in the piperine-treated animals. The high amount of uronic acid (355.83 ug/100 mg tissue) in the metastasized control animals was significantly reduced (65 ug/100 mg tissue) in the animals treated with piperine. Lung hexosamine content was also significantly reduced in the piperine-treated animals (0.98 mg/100 mg lyophilized tissue) compared to the untreated tumour-bearing animals (4.2 mg/100 mg lyophilized tissue). The elevated levels of serum sialic acid and serum gamma glutamyl transpeptidase activity in the untreated control animals were significantly reduced in the animals treated with piperine. Piperine-treated animals survived the experiment as well (90 days) (Pradeep and Kuttan, 2002).

Black pepper as :Antioxidant.⁵: Significantly elevated levels of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), conjugated dienes (CD) and significantly lowered activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione-S-transferase (GST) and reduced glutathione (GSH) in the liver, heart, kidney, intestine and aorta were observed in rats fed the high fat diet as compared to the control rats. Simultaneous supplementation with black pepper (0.25 g or 0.5 g/kg body weight) or piperine (0.02 g/kg body weight) lowered TBARS and CD levels and maintained SOD, CAT, GPx, GST, and GSH levels to near those of control rats (Vijayakumar et al, 2004).

Black pepper as: Hypolipidaemic⁵: P. nigrum at 250 mg/kg body weight and 500 mg/kg body weight and its active principle, piperine at 20 mg/kg body weight administered to high fat fed rats for a period of 10 weeks resulted in a remarkable reduction in the levels of total cholesterol, free fatty acids, phospholipids and triglycerides in black pepper as well as in the piperine treated groups. The concentration of high density lipoprotein-cholesterol was elevated and the concentrations of low density lipoprotein-cholesterol and very low density lipoprotein-cholesterol in the plasma were reduced (Vijayakumar et al, 2002).

Black pepper as: Acetylcholinesterase Inhibition⁵: At concentration of 0.1 mg/mL, an extract of the seeds of P. nigrum showed 50-65% inhibitory activity on AChE (Ingkaninan et al, 2003).

Black pepper as :Anti-Mutagenic⁵: The wing Somatic Mutation And Recombination Test (SMART) in D. melanogaster was used to study the modulating action of P. nigrum in combination with methyl methanesulfonate and the promutagen agent ethyl carbamate. Results showed that black pepper was effective against the promutagen agent ethyl carbamate but not the alkylating agent methyl methanesulfonate. Pretreatment of 2-day-old larvae for 24 h followed by a treatment with EC and MMS was only effective in reducing mutations induced by EC (El Hamss et al, 2003).

Black pepper as :Anti-Thyroidal⁵: Daily oral administration of 2.50 mg/kg of piperine for 15 days lowered the serum levels of thyroxin (T (4)) and triiodothyronine (T (3)) as well as glucose concentrations with a simultaneous decrease in hepatic 5'D enzyme and glucose-6-phospatase (G-6-Pase) activity (Panda and Kar, 2003).

Black pepper as :Cell Growth Promoter⁵: P. nigrum fruit extract was found to possess growth stimulatory activity towards cultured melanocytes. At 0.1 mg/mL, the aqeous extract was observed to cause nearly 300% stimulation of the growth of a cultured mouse melanocyte line, melan-a, in 8 days. Piperine, the main alkaloid from P. nigrum fruit also significantly stimulated melan-a cell growth (Lin et al, 1999).

Black pepper as :Gastric Acid Secretion Stimulatory⁵: Increasing the dose of piperine from 20 mg/kg body weight to 142 mg/kg body weight produced significant dose dependent increases in gastric acid secretion in white albino rats when compared with control basal acid secretion. 20 mg/kg produced a 22.2% increase while the highest dose 142 mg/kg produced 334.6% increase in the gastric acid secretion. Piperine was however about 40 times less effective than histamine in increasing gastric acid secretion. The effect of piperine was significantly antagonized by cimetidine (1 mg/kg but not by atropine (1 mg/kg) (Ononiwu et al, 2002).

Black pepper as : Gastroprotective⁵: P. nigrum may protect the colon by decreasing the activity of b-glucuronidase and mucinase. Histopathological studies also showed lesser infiltration into the submucosa, fewer papillae and lesser changes in the cytoplasm of the cells in the colon in black pepper groups (Nalini et al, 1998).

Black pepper as: Hepatoprotective⁵: Piperine exerted a significant protection against tertiary-butyl hydroperoxide and CCl4 induced hepatotoxicity by reducing both in vitro and in vivo lipid peroxidation, enzymatic leakage of GPT and AP and by preventing the depletion of GSH and total thiols in the intoxicated mice. Piperine showed lower hepatoprotective potency than silymarin, a known hepatoprotective drug (Koul and Kapil, 1993). Swiss albino mice of either sex (eight weeks old) fed on a diet containing 0.5%, 1% and 2% black pepper (w/w) for 10 and 20 days revealed a significant and dose-dependent increase in glutathione S-transferase and acid-soluble sulfhydryl content in the experimental groups. Mice maintained on 0.5% black pepper diet for 10 days showed elevated levels of cytochrome b5 and cytochrome P-450. The level of malondialdehyde was lowered in the group fed on 2% black pepper diet for 20 days (Singh and Rao, 1993).

Black pepper as: Insecticidal⁵: Pipertipine and pipercitine demonstrated toxicity against fourth-instar larvae of Aedes aegypti (Siddiqui et al, 2002). Pipnoohine and pipyahyine demonstrated toxicity at 35.0 and 30.0 ppm respectively against fourth instar larvae of Aedes aegypti L (Siddiqui et al, 2004). A new insecticidal amide piptigrine demonstrated toxicity at 15.0 ppm against fourth instar larvae of Aedes aegypti (Siddiqui BS et al, 2004). Biologically active constituents of P. nigrum fruits (isobutylamide alkaloids: pellitorine, guineensine, pipercide, and retrofractamide A) showed activity against third instar larvae of Culex pipiens pallens, Aedes aegypti and A. togoi (Park et al, 2002).

Black pepper as: Tumor Stimulatory⁵: 50 male and 50 female Bufo regularis treated by force-feeding with an extract of black pepper at a dose level of 2 mg, 3 times a week for 5 months showed first tumours after 2 months. Liver tumours (hepatocellular carcinomas, lymphosarcomas and fibrosarcomas) were found in 12 males and 18 females. Metastatic deposits of hepatocellular carcinomas were registered in the spleen, kidney, fat body and ovary (el-Mofty et al, 1991). In mice, injection of safrole, tannic acid or methylcholanthrene (MCA) during the preweaning period induced tumours in different organs. Safrole and tannic acid were weak carcinogens when compared with MCA. Force feeding of d-limonene (one of the pepper terpenoids) for a period of time to the mice which were injected with any of the above 3 substances reduced their carcinogenic activity, while force feeding of piperine was ineffective (Wrba et al, 1992).

CONTRAIDICATIONS: It is contraindicated to pregnant women, lactating mother and also peoples about to undergo surgery and having ulcer to stomachs. Should not be used during pregnancy and lactation. Should not be given to children. Avoid in people who develop hypersensitivity to it (Skidmore-Roth, 2001).⁵

CONCLUSION: There are many claims to the benefits of black pepper and its uses; it is belonging to the family piperaceae. The black pepper is native to central Asia is a herb providing widest range of physiological effects however results of some studies conducted to explore the beneficial effects of garlic were positive and some were negative. Though there are several common use and benefits, the most popular frequent use is as a spice. Prolongation of its extract leads to the formation of

antioxidant phytochemicals which include unique water soluble organosulfur compounds, lipid soluble organosulfur components and flavonoids that prevent oxidant damage and as a result plays an important role in aging and disease,

including cardiovascular, neurodegenerative and inflammatory diseases even in cancer.

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Received on 31.07.2011

Accepted on 29.08.2011

Research Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 3(5): Sept.- Oct.2011, 195-200